↑ 1,01,11,21,31,41,5/p/, /t/, /k/ are unaspirated, as in the Romance languages, or as in English spy, sty, sky. In final position, they are unreleased[p̚, t̪̚, ʔ̚], with final k being a glottal stop. /b, d/ are also unreleased, and therefore devoiced, [p̚, t̚]. There is no liaison: they remain unreleased even when followed by a vowel, as in kulit ubi "potato skins", though they are pronounced as a normal medial consonant when followed by a suffix.
↑ 2,02,12,22,32,4The fricatives [f, z, ʃ, x] are found in loanwords only. Some speakers pronounce orthographic ‹v› in loanwords as Mal:IPAblink; otherwise it is Mal:IPAblink.
↑ 3,03,13,2The glottal stop Mal:IPAblink is an allophone of /k/ and /ɡ/ in the coda: baik, bapak. It is also used between identical vowels in hiatus. Only a few words have this sound in the middle, e.g. bakso (meatballs). It may be represented by an apostrophe in Arabic derived words such as Al Qur'an.
↑In traditional Malay areas, the rhotic consonant/r/ is realized as a velar or uvular fricative, Mal:IPAblink or Mal:IPAblink, and elided word-finally. Elsewhere, including in Standard Indonesian, it is an alveolar tap Mal:IPAblink or trill Mal:IPAblink. Its position relative to schwa is ambiguous: kertas "paper" may be pronounced [krəˈtas] or [kərəˈtas].
↑The nasal consonant/m, n, ŋ, ɲ/nasalize following vowels, and may nasalize a subsequent vowel if the intervening consonant is /h, j, w, ʔ/.
↑ 7,07,17,27,3[e, o] are allophones of /i, u/ in native words, but have become established as distinct phonemes in English and Javanese loan words. The diphthongs /ai, au/, which only occur in open syllables, are often merged into [e, o], respectively, especially in Java.
↑The Malay/Indonesian /e/ doesn't quite line up with any English vowel, though the nearest equivalents are the vowel of clay (for most English dialects) and the vowel of get. The Malay/Indonesian vowel is usually articulated at a point between the two.
↑ 9,09,19,29,3/e, i, o, u/ have laxallophones[ɛ, ɪ, ɔ, ʊ] in closed syllables, except that tense [i, u] occur in stressed syllables with a coda nasal, and laax [ɛ, ɔ] also occur in open syllables if the following syllable contains the same lax vowel.
↑Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable. If that syllable contains a schwa Mal:IPAblink, stress shifts to the antepenult if there is one, and to the final syllable if there is not. Some suffixes are ignored for stress placement.
